A Janus-Faced View of Libraries in the Future

Benjamin H. Trask

Janus, the Roman god of new beginnings, lent his name to the first month of the year. He was literally a two-faced creature, with the older face looking to the past and the younger countenance peering to the future. Following Janus's example of looking forward and backward at the same time, librarians may gain insight into current futuristic discussions by looking at past library literature, and maybe peer more clearly into the future itself.

Introduction

An exciting new century is not far away. Such benchmarks in time give rise to discussions about the future of fashion, the economy, and technology. In the same vein, librarians cannot help spilling ink on the possible features of tomorrow's "information age." With so much emphasis on the coming years, one may wonder how professionals seventy to forty years ago fared in forcasting the future.

To examine this question, one must discuss the importance of progressive-looking librarians, and scrutinize the genre of futuristic library literature. To accomplish these goals the writer examined eighty-seven articles published between 1919 and 1961 in American library or related journals. In addition, the writer inspected six professional monographs within the same chronological framework. It is the writer's assumption that the articles and chapters examined form a representative sample; and librarians of the first half of this century were no better, or worse, at judging what was to be the future than were their prognosticating successors. The examination of this material may give insight into how accurate the predictions made in the 1990s may be about the following era.

Problems with Vision

For the most part, the years just after World War I were pleasant times in the United States. The Great War was over and Americans sought diversions. Librarians reflected the spirit of cheerfulness of the period. Two themes appeared that continued into mid-century. The first was the popular belief that educators would soon eliminate illiteracy. Second, higher literacy would result in a more cultured people enjoying their ever-increasing leisure time in pursuits other than reading pulp novels and comic books.¹

A proponent of a brighter future for Americans was Charles C. Williamson of the New York Public Library. He forecasted, "illiteracy will practically disappear, while working hours grow shorter, and larger proportion of the population will demand an opportunity to make practical use of their ability to read."²

In 1928, Effie L. Power, Director of Children's Services at the Cleveland Public Library, echoed Williamson's sentiments. She remarked, "A study of the progress of children's libraries and children's reading during the past ten years indicates that more children are reading and that books of finer quality are becoming increasingly popular."³

While not a librarian, historian Avery O. Craven's musings in Library Journal paralleled the other speculators' conclusions. Craven did not predict the end of "the latest murder mystery ... in a cheap paperbacked edition." However, the University of Chicago professor imagined acquisition librarians would seek "only the work of standard authors and those whose writings early showed an indication of permanent value."⁴

In 1927, Jennie M. Flexner, Head of the Circulation Department of the Louisville Public Library, observed "that which is ahead in circulation work, as well as other phases of library work, presents a very promising picture, a vivid varied opportunity for those with a listening ear, a seeing eye and a buoyant spirit."⁵ Finally, just before the stock market crash of 1929, Philip McDevitt's article titled, "The Future Library," appeared in Library Review. He concluded, "The mental powers of readers freed from

11

the ever present menace of economic insecurity, will turn instinctively from trashy literature and recreations to those which are pure, true and of a high standard of excellence."⁶

Into the Great Depression, librarians imagined a more prosperous country inhabited by a "better" American. In the midst of economic stagnation, Arnold K. Borden of the University of Pennsylvania calculated, "General attitudes toward the library should undergo substantial modification by 1954. The elimination of immigration and child labor, a population almost wholly the product of the American school system, the raising of general intelligence by the large increase in college attendance since the War, the gradual growth of leisure—all this will make for a more homogeneous and enlightened people."⁷

As with other professionals, librarians looked to President Franklin D. Roosevelt's National Recovery Act for relief from the financial lull. Nonetheless, cutbacks were still expected. The hope was that the unemployed could augment library personnel—with the help of federal grants. The questions became how much governmental aid would be required and how long assistance would be provided?⁸

Manufacturing for battle pulled the American economy out of the Depression. Librarians adjusted to the wartime conditions. Naturally, thoughts of life after the war was the topic of much discussion.⁹ The officials of the American Library Association organized a Postwar Planning Committee before the bombing of Pearl Harbor.¹⁰ William H. Carlson, the Librarian at the University of Arizona, foresaw "the present upheaval is so tremendous that we can never return to our old way of life."¹¹

The war, however, was only to be a curious respite from the Depression. Librarians and many other educated people expected America to fall back into a serious fiscal slump. More tight budget planning and hopes for continued governmental assistance would be necessary. Carlson thought, "the postwar era will be a period of economy if not retrenchment. We can expect that expenditures will be even more closely scrutinized than at present and that luxury purchases and luxury services will be fewer." Supporting this view was Herbert A. Kellar, Director of the McCormick Historical Association. Kellar noted, in what he called "white-collar relief labor," that economic conditions "in the postwar era undoubtedly will make relief labor supported by government funds, again available in large measure."¹² And Edward Barrett Stanford in his book on the library and the Works Project Administration concluded, "It is more likely that some kind of work program will be needed after the present war if the nation is to make readjustment to a peace-time economy without widespread unemployment and suffering."¹³

Through the tough times libraries managed to expand. Surprisingly, this steady growth worried many officials of large university libraries. The collection sizes and massive structures housing these holdings overwhelmed students and troubled administrators.¹⁴ Despite fiscal hardship and the advent of microfilm, by 1940 the major library collections were huge. Ever onward, the number of volumes grew and buildings sprouted wings to hold them.

In 1938, Harvard University boasted of 3,941,359 titles, while the librarians at Yale University had amassed 2,748,000 volumes. Many librarians refused to believe this present rate of growth could continue. Specifically, collections could not continue to double in size every fifteen to twenty years. At this pace librarians of the era projected, by the year 2040, Yale's library would contain approximately 200,000,000 books, which would require approximately 6,000 miles of shelves. Yet, with new fields of scholarship arising, librarians knew that the war would only delay the expanding ranges. Fremont Rider of Wesleyan University lamented, "of all the problems which have of recent years engaged the attention of educators and librarians none have been more puzzling than those posed by the astonishing growth of our great research library."¹⁵

To check this juggernaut of expansion, scholars proposed some excellent techniques, many are which are in common practice today. These ideas were to bring change on a "sweeping scale." Among these suggestions were easier interlibrary loan policies, shared and streamlined cataloging, catalog systems on microcards, selective deaccessioning, regional cooperative libraries, increased utilization of microforms, collection specialization, and the development of higher quality microforms.¹⁶

While all of these proposals have merit, the tone of the professional literature at mid-century indicated that a major university library just could not grow beyond a few million volumes and still operate effectively. Librarians and the support staff would be overwhelmed by the immense number of titles, and building costs to house these materials would be incredible. Furthermore, conglomerations of this magnitude would be a nightmare for users in search of the few books they might require at any given visit.

The growth did not spark radical changes in the collective wisdom of library prognosticators. Leaders

12

still encouraged librarians to "adopt a twofold attack on growth: cooperative deposit and eliminations." In conjunction with joint depositories, Keyes D. Metcalf of Harvard University, recommended that, "libraries split among them the cost of making master-negatives [of microfilm] and then make it possible for each of them to acquire a positive for any part of the microfilmed material when it was needed." Metcalf imagined also "that we shall not find print catalogs in print form for older material, either independently or better still, jointly."¹⁷

Ironically, with all the potential of the new innovations, in the mid-1950s, skeptics like Professors Haynes McMullen and Melvin J. Voigt had their reservations. McMullen thought "It is unlikely that the typical university library staff of [the year] 2005 will employ any mechanical devices which are not already in existence." He listed three reasons for this apparent lack of progress. "The use of transmitters, copying machines and the like may be many years away from the mass-market that libraries can afford. The new development will most likely be too expensive for most libraries. Third, faculty members may not be ready for the increased efficiency."¹⁸

Melvin J. Voigt of the University of California, Berkeley, assumed, "While digital computers are likely to become important in some aspects of librarianship, the adaptation of these machines, whether to ordinary library operations, or to the storage of information in the form of words, sentences and books, presents problems technologists are not ready to cope with."¹⁹ What is clear from the remarks make by McMullen and Voigt is that the tremendous power of the computer in its infancy had not been envisioned by some library educators.

The Eyes of the Oracles

Notwithstanding their visionary shortsightedness, scholars and practitioners writing in the first half of the century did show foresight. Not only did they identify trends but they were also able to comment on issues and improvements that are still current. Among these are: cooperation, flexible planning, microtechnology, audiovisual advances, photoreproduction, obsolescence of the print media, inexpensive high speed electronic communications, networking, and specialization of professionals and collections.²⁰

Predictors grasped the impact of the outside forces on the library as an institution. Libraries did not function in a vacuum. They are vulnerable to all the political shifts and economic winds of other facilities. Jesse H. Shera pointed out, "the library is distinctly a social phenomenon and as such is susceptible to all the influences that react upon our social structure." More succinctly. Craven declared, "The future of the library will reflect and be a part of the future American social-economic order."²¹

Before the end of the Second World War, librarians recognized two changes that were emerging in scholarly literature. The interaction of Americans and citizens in other lands would spark interest in these peoples, and the interest in technical publications would mushroom. Winifred Ver Nooy, the President of the Association of College and Research Libraries, commented, "We must have those books that are valuable in following up the interests of the men who have been in Europe, the Pacific, Africa, and out-of-the-way foreign parts."²²

Furthermore, before the use of nuclear weapons against Japan or the launching of Sputnik by the Soviets, Ver Nooy recognized "the trend of the educational program of the institution and the interests of the students and faculty must be reflected in the books selected for purchase. The new books about the amazing scientific discoveries of the past few years are important and should be found in every college library."²³ Librarians did more than anticipate the need to accession works on the latest advancements. They made plans to rapidly acquire this information, and were eager to apply the advancements in ways to better serve their patrons.

In the 1920s and 1930s, forecasters applauded the wondrous potential of the telephone and television.²⁴ Shera declared, "for the scholar of the future then, the bibliographical treasures that he needs even though they may be in the most remote libraries, will be no farther from his than the television apparatus at his elbow."²⁵ Along the same line. Craven envisioned, "with the television it will be possible to call by phone any library, even half across the continent and have a rare manuscript thrown before you for use at your own desk."²⁶ Such methods exist in many formats, such as e-mail, faxes, and the virtual library.

Harry Miller Lydenberg, Director of the New York Public Library, wondered "how soon are we to see television applied to long-distance reference work? ... It certainly will not be long before some means will be developed by which a librarian will put a book in some kind of machine and permit a man sitting in home or office to refer to it, if not read it at length."²⁷

Sages expected two other technological innovations would influence their occupations—document reproduction and audiovisual improvements. Lydenberg announced "that new developments in

13

the field make it not fantastic to believe that soon we shall be able to reproduce a whole book of normal octave size on a 3 x 5 card." Craven claimed "The photostat will be greatly improved and cheapened so that it will be possible to reproduce any book or document or newspaper at a nominal cost, and thus to duplicate for the larger centers all materials desired."²⁸

As early as 1930, librarians recognized the shortcomings of certain print media. Information was out-of-date before the ink dried on the paper. This was especially apparent with monographs published in the medical, engineering, and scientific fields. Reference Librarian Thomas E. Keys of The Mayo Clinic recalled one of the clinic's founders attraction to periodicals; the doctor noted "advance in medicine has been so rapid that by the time the results of investigations are published in book form they have given way to new developments."²⁹ More succinctly, books soon are "without value, except from a historical point of view."³⁰ Summing up this stream of innovation, John E. Burchard remarked, "The specter of change expresses itself most palpably in the potential of various technological developments such as microfilm, microprint, microcard, recording on wires and disks."³¹

Fifty years ago, librarians used the term "co-operation" rather than the buzzword "network." The spirit, nonetheless, is the same. When institutions share goals, ideas, and expenses, they operate more efficiently and better serve users. In 1940, Dean Louis Round Wilson of the University of Chicago Library School announced that the days "of institutional rugged individualism like the physical frontier, have passed."³² This is not to say cooperation was a new concept to the modern librarian, not more emphasis would be placed on sharing resources than ever before this time.

The greatest areas for cooperation would be joint cataloging, indexing, and abstracting projects.³³ Additionally, it was recognized that catalogers needed to change their mental approach to their work, showing more interest for the researcher in need of the material and less concern about their "own pride of craftsmanship."³⁴ In 1950, Chief Assistant Librarian of Congress, Verner W. Clapp, described the current "situation in which thousands of catalogers, indexers and abstracters in every library ... all over the world contribute to disorganized, heterogeneous, unrationalized, duplicating, unduly expensive, gapping and inefficient complex of services."³⁵ To untangle this bibliographic mess, Clapp dreamed of a "new mechanical device." The machine would be able to "hold the entire indexes of books as well as the two or three subject headings which we ordinarily analyze these books." The fantastic machine that Clapp described sounds very much like a computer with a modem link to the RLIN, OCLC and Med-link databases and the Internet.³⁶

Predictions about the library's role after the Second World War centered around meeting the demands of returning armed service personnel, the increase in scientific literature, and the coming of the computer and atomic age. Only William H. Carlson of the University of Arizona hinted of the coming Cold War. He foresaw after "every major war people have cried out that it must not happen again but it always has and frequently surprisingly soon, as our generation is tragically and cruelly learning."³⁷

The appeal of the computer generation had a little more appeal than the "atomic age."³⁸ Burt Nanus, of the Sperry Rand Corporation, concluded "the real value of a fully automated information retrieval system is to be found more in the greatly increased ability to satisfy search requests than in the replacement of human labor."³⁹

The preceding two sections, "problems with vision" and "the eyes of the oracles," are an attempt to reveal that in the past, librarians could be both shortsighted and insightful. They are not intended to mock from the vantage point of hindsight. Instead, from the perspective of the 1990s, librarians can learn from the past, and keep these examples in consideration as they examine literature that postulates on the many dimensions of the next century.

Examination of the Genre

After reading the articles and the chapters about libraries and the future, certain trends surfaced. Authors tried to end their pieces on a positive stroke. In fact, there were few "doom and gloom" dirges.⁴⁰ Some of the apparent confidence came from a strong faith in technological advances, the expectation of the hominization of American culture, and the early projections on the improvement in the average citizens' education and sophistication levels.

Unfortunately, few of the articles discussed the people who composed the library circle such as patrons, library science students, administrators, support staff, and other associates. There was a handful of exceptions.⁴¹ Of the nearly one hundred sources the writer reviewed, a few offered little "meaty" content. A couple editorials and commentaries were vague and provided no clear predictions and, therefore, were only morsels as food for thought.⁴² Nonetheless, their presence in the professional literature, along with the high number of other articles, indicates a strong desire to look ahead.

14

To no surprise most of the articles appeared in the last years of a decade, or in the first part of a new ten-year span. The exception to the pattern occurred during the final stage of the Second World War. In 1944, at least seventeen articles appeared in print to discuss the upcoming challenges for the profession.

Arnold K. Borden's predictions exemplify an overall, thought-provoking pattern. One's predictions for the future may come true, but they do not remain true. In 1934, he penned an article about the library world twenty years in the future. He foretold of the increase in leisure time, higher education levels, and unification under a single culture. Certainly, some of Borden's remarks may have held true in the 1950s, but did not remain constant to the 1990s.

As an example, the demographics of the United States's ethnic population has never held stabilized. The number of Hispanic, Caribbean, and Asian immigrants has grown as the population mark moves beyond 250 million. As for literacy and leisure time, millions of Americans cannot compose a paragraph, and recreational hours are on the decline. Finally, the expectation of Americans as a more "cultured" people would certainly disappoint Borden with the current thirst for thriller novels, weekly tabloids, "Gonzo" journalism, pop psychology cures, and fad diets.

Another interesting feature in Borden's article was his courage to limit the occurrences he foresaw within a twenty-year span.⁴³ Most library prog-nosticators do not place time limits on their predictions. Therefore, as long as there is a future one's prediction may come true. Practically speaking though, if the soothsayers' predictions do not occur within a ten- to thirty-year span, they will be of little use to the reader as a means to plan for the future.

Conclusion

Librarians can expect to ingest more about the future as it relates to their profession as the days roll toward the next millennium. Such discussions by experts make fine mental grist for keynote addresses, after-dinner talks, program themes for state conferences, editorials, and articles. The future is an extremely flexible and tantalizing topic. Through it all, librarians should bear a few points in mind.

Librarians should be focused on tomorrow's patron as well as tomorrow's technology. What will the "average" user be like in twenty years? In what region of the country will the population grow or decline? What will the patrons' reaction be to the new technologies found in the libraries? All of these questions require study. These areas for potential research generally have been neglected by our predecessors.

In addition, since predecessors missed the mark on occasion, it would be safe to conclude that predictions advanced in the 1990s will also not come to pass within a twenty to thirty year span of time. Therefore, librarians will have to use their judgment concerning the feasibility of all forecasts. In other words, all of the futuristic food for thought should be absorbed as a grain of salt.

Finally, librarians claim to be drowning in information. Yet, the profession has many problems to overcome: funding shortages, poor public image, the elimination of library schools, to name a few. So how is it that a profession surrounded by all this information still struggles for respect? The answer lies in the false impression concerning the power of information. There is no intrinsic power in information, it is only a tool for those with the courage and wisdom to harness the data. Librarians rarely lack for information, but the spark that links information to results is not always present. The catalyst needed is leadership. With strong leadership, librarians can not only embrace the future, they can shape it.

End Notes

1. A. L. Sawyer, "The Model Library of the Future." Library Journal 45 (December 15, 1920): 1013.

2. C. C. Williamson, "A Look Ahead for the Small Library." Bulletin of the American Library Association 13 (July 1919): 143; However as early as 1941, this thinking began to change. Harriet E. Howe observed that enlistees in the armed services still lacked basic educational skills and an understanding of English. Harriet E. Howe, "Looking Forward." Library Journal 66 (Jan. 1, 1941): 12. And almost twenty years later Frank L. Shick lamented, "It is surely no consolation to know that in spite of these astounding increases in school enrollments in the 1960's, 7.5 million (or 30%) of those entering the labor force during this decade have not completed high school and 2.5 million of them not even grade school." Frank L. Schick, "Facts About the Future." Wilson Library Bulletin 35 (November 1960): 221.

3. Effie L. Power, "The Children's Library in a Changing World." Libraries 33 (November 1928): 460.

4. Avery O. Craven, "The Library of the Future." Library Journal 57 (October 1, 1932): 798.

5. Jennie M. Flexner, "What's Ahead for the Circulation Assistant?" Libraries 33 (October 1927): 402.

6. Phillip McDevitt, "The Future Library." Library Review 2 (Summer 1929): 85.

7. Both quotations from Arnold K. Borden, "Libraries Twenty Years Hence." Library Journal 59 (May 1, 1934): 374.

8. Carl H. Milam, "Libraries and the New Deal." Library Journal 58 (October 1, 1933): 766; and Judson T. Jennings, "Star Gazing." Bulletin of the American Library Association 29 (September 1935): 544.

9. Rex M. Potterf, "Public Libraries Must Meet Accelerated Tempo in Postwar Planning." Library Journal 69 (May 1, 1944): 388.

15

10. Charles B. Shaw, "The Postwar Role of Libraries." College and Research Libraries 5 (December 1943: 19-20.

11. William H. Carlson, "Library Planning for the Postwar World." College and Research Libraries 3 (September 1942): 298.

12. Herbert A. Kellar, "American Reference Libraries in the Postwar Era." College and Research Libraries 3 (September 1942): 286-287.

13. Edward Barrett Stanford, Library Extension Under the WPA: An Appraisal of an Experiment in Federal Aid (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1944), 265.

14. Carter Davidson, "The Future of the College Library." College and Research Libraries 4 (March 1943): 115-116; Fremont Rider, The Scholar and the Future of the Research Library: A Problem and Its Solution (New York: Hadham Press, 1944),'3-10; Robert W. McEwen, "American College Libraries in the Postwar Era." College and Research Libraries 3 (September 1942): 296; Fremont Rider, "The Future of the Research Library." College and Research Libraries 5 (September 1944): 302; Einar Mose, "The Future of Catalogs and Collections." Wilson Bulletin 4 (April 1930): 385; and C. E. Sunderlin, "The Future of Science Libraries," Bulletin of the Medical Library Association 40 (April 1952): 147.

15. Rider, "The Future of the Research Library," 301.

16. H. Dorothy Tilly, "The Future." Music Library Association Notes Second Series, 3 (June 1946): 231; John E. Burchard, "Postwar Library Buildings." College and Research Libraries 7 (April 1946): 122-123; Rider, The Scholar and the Future of the Research Library, 15-17; Davidson, "The Future of the College Library." 116-118; Kellar, "American Reference Libraries in the Postwar Era." 286; C. E. Sunderlin, "The Future of Science Libraries." 146; Ena Oertii, "The Catalog of the Future." Wilson Library Bulletin 17 (February 1943): 448-449; quotation from Rider, "The Future of the Research Library," 301.

17. Keyes D. Metcalf, "University Libraries Face the Future." Libraries Quarterly 22 (January 1952): first quotation from page 10, second quotation from page 11.

18. Haynes McMullen, "American University Libraries, 1955-2005." College and Research Libraries 16 (July 1955): first quotation from page 288, second quotation from page 289.

19. Melvin J. Voigt, "The Trend Toward Mechanization on Libraries." Library Trends 5 (October 1956): 196.

20. Hugh G. Boutwell, "A Glimpse into the Future of Research, Based on the Present Activities of the National Bureau of Standards." Special Libraries 20 (September 1929): 260; John Cotton Dana, "Changes in Library Methods in a Changing World." Libraries 32 (May 1927): 218; and Irene M. Strieby, "The Pharmaceutical Library of the Future." Bulletin of the Medical Library Association Part II, 41 (October 1953): 404.

21. Jesse H. Shera, "Recent Social Trends and Future Library Policy." Library Quarterly 3 (October 1933), 339; and Craven, "The Library of the Future," 795.

22. Winifred Ver Nooy, "University Reference Work After the War." College and Research Libraries 6 (March 1945): 107.

23. Winifred Ver Nooy, "Keeping After-War Goals in View." College and Research Libraries 6 (December 1944): 3.

24. Adelaide R. Hasse, "Bibliography: Today and Tomorrow." Special Libraries 21 (March 1930): 80.

25. Shera, "Recent Social Trends and Future Library Policy," 346.

26. Craven, "The Library of the Future," 800.

27. Harry Miller Lydenberg, "Tomorrow." Library Quarterly 7 (July 1937): 314.

28. Miller, "Tomorrow," 314; and Craven, "The Library of the Future," 799.

29. Thomas E. Keyes, "Medical Librarianship: Looking forward to 1970." Bulletin of the Medical Library Association 27 (March 1939): 208.

30. Mose, "The Future of Catalogs and Collections," 385.

31. Burchard, "Postwar Library Buildings," 123.

32. Louis R. Wilson, "The Challenge of the 1930's to the 1940's." College and Research Libraries 1 (March 1940): 131.

33. Arthur B. Berthold, "The Future of the Catalog in Research Libraries." College and Research Libraries 8 (January 1947): 21-22.

34. Jeanette Murphy Lynn, "The Future of Cataloging and Classification." Catholic Library World 13 (February 1942): 143.

35. Verner W. Clapp, "Indexing and Abstracting: Recent Past and Lines of Future Development." College of Research Libraries 11 (July 1950): 206.

36. Ibid.

37. Carlson, "Library Planning of the Postwar World," 301.

38. Richard James Hurley, "A Blueprint of a Dream." Catholic Library World 18 (October 1946): 9; and M. Madeleva, "Reading for the Future." Catholic Library World 18 (October 1946): 20.

39. Burt Nanus, "The Use of Electronic Computers for Information Retrieval." Bulletin of the Special Library Association 48 (July I960): 289.

40. An exception to this was the remarks by Charles C. Williamson on the small, independent, public library. He declared, "It seems to me that the average small library is an anachronism and a survival [sic], in a class with the ungraded and unsupervised district school." Williamson, "A Look Ahead for the Small Library," 141.

41. Frank L. Schick, "Facts About the Future." Wilson Library Bulletin 35 (November I960): 219-221; this article is an overview of demographics; Donald E. Strout and Ruth B. Strout, "Horizons Unlimited," Library Journal 85 (June 15, I960): 2366-2372; contained material on recent library school graduates and predictions on salaries and disciplines that will in demand of librarians.

42. These pieces include: "The Opportunity and the Outlook." Library Journal 45 (January 1, 1920): [11]-12; John Foster Carr, "A Greater American Library Association." Library Journal 45 (October 1, 1920): [775J-778; and Perrie Jones, "Hospital Libraries—Today and Tomorrow." Bulletin of the Medical Library Association 32 (October 1944): 467-478.

43. Other examples of articles with time delimiters were: Thomas E. Keys, "Medical Librarianship: Looking Toward 1970." Bulletin of the Medical Library Association 27 (March 1939): 208-212;

and Robert J. Blakely, "Nineteen Eighty (Not Nineteen Eighty-Four!)." Library Trend 8 (July 1959): 9-14; Haynes McMullen, "American University Libraries, 1955-2005." Co/lege and Research Libraries 16 (July 1955): 286-295; and C. E. Sunderlin, "The Future of Science Libraries." Bulletin of the Medical Library Association 40 (April 1952); section titled "The Science Library in the Year 2000," pages 150-152.

*Benjamin H. Trask, Librarian, The Mariners' Museum, Newport News, Virginia.

16